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One main challenge of emerging fungal-based engineered living materials (ELMs) lies in achieving localized multi-material properties in these structures. Although three-dimensional (3D) printing can efficiently vary local composition and properties, it has not yet been demonstrated in fungal-based ELMs. This work thus explores the concept of using nutrients to manipulate fungal foraging behavior in 3D structures fabricated using direct ink writing (DIW) for the next generation of fungal-based ELMs. Using two fungal strains (Pleurotus ostreatus and Ganoderma lucidum), this study shows that the ink formulation used is suitable for both DIW and mycelium growth. Varying the nutrient content allows for either the inhibition or promotion of exploration and bridging of mycelium in different sections, the control of mycelium density in three dimensions and the fabrication of patterned surfaces. There is potential in fabricating patterned fungal-based ELMs and lab-on-a-chip systems to investigate the effects of other substances and microorganisms on the foraging behavior of mycelium.

In an increasing effort to address the environmental challenges caused by the currently linear economic paradigm of “produce, use, and discard”, the construction industry has been shifting towards a more circular model. A circular economy requires closing of the loops, where the end-of-life of a building is considered more carefully, and waste is used as a resource. In comparison to traditional building materials such as timber, steel and concrete, mycelium-based materials are renewable alternatives that use organic agricultural and industrial waste as a key ingredient for production, and do not rely on mass extraction or exploitation of valuable finite or non-finite resources. Mycelium-based materials have shown their potential as a more circular and economically competitive alternative to conventional synthetic materials in numerous industries ranging from packaging, electronic prototyping, furniture, fashion to architecture. However, application of mycelium-based materials in the construction industry has been limited to small-scale prototypes and architectural installations due to low mechanical properties, lack of standardisation in production methods and material characterisation. This paper aims to review the current state of the art in research and applications of mycelium-based materials across disciplines, with a particular focus on digital methods of fabrication, production, and design. The information gathered from this review will be synthesised to identify key challenges in scaling up applications of mycelium-based materials as load-bearing structural elements in architecture and suggest opportunities and directions for future research.

Mycelium-bound composites (MBCs) are materials obtained by growing fungi on a ligno-cellulosic substrate which have various applications in packaging, furniture, and construction industries. MBCs are particularly interesting as they are sustainable materials that can integrate into a circular economy model. Indeed, they can be subsequently grown, used, degraded, and re-grown. Integrating in a meaningful biocycle for our society therefore demands that MBCs fulfil antagonistic qualities which are to be at the same time durable and biodegradable. In this study, we conduct experiments using MBCs made from the fungus species Pleurotus ostreatus grown on bamboo microfibers substrate. By measuring the variations of the mechanical properties with time, we provide an experimental demonstration of a biocycle for such composites for in-door applications. We found that the biocycle can be as short as 5 months and that the use of sustainable coatings is critical to increase the durability of the composites while maintaining biodegradability. Although there are many scenarios of biocycles possible, this study shows a tangible proof-of-concept example and paves the way for optimization of the duration of each phase in the biocycle depending on the intended application and resource availability.